Mushroom: A Review

 

Panchawat S.

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mohan Lal Sukhadia University, Udaipur (Rajasthan)

 

ABSTRACT:

Mushrooms are an important natural source of the foods and medicines. The medical importance of edible and wild mushroom and these are now being screened for their bioactivity in various ailments. Mushroom represents a major and untapped source of potent new pharmaceutical products. A wide range of activities including antitumor, cardiovascular and antimicrobial are reported in mushroom. In developing countries like INDIA mushroom progress is a boom in the field of food, medicine, and in generating employment. The alternative systems of medicine utilize the curative properties of mushroom. The present review is aimed to discuss biological activities of mushroom and their role in various human diseases.

 

KEY WORDS: Mushroom, Medicines, Toxicity, Pharmaceutical, antimicrobial.

 

INTRODUCTION:

The term mushroom comes from the French word 'Massy'. Massy can be defined as cellular, flowerless plants, nourished by the mycelium growing in soil, wood and other decaying matter. Mushrooms belong to a group of plants called fungi. They have no chlorophyll and therefore obtain their food from decaying wood or animals. [1] The function of mushroom is to produce spores, which are the "seeds" of the fungus. Some kinds of mushrooms produce their spores on gills (the gilled fungi); some in pores (the pore fungi); some on teeth (the tooth fungi); some inside a leathery pouch (the puffballs); some on the inside of shallow cups (the cup fungi) and some simply on the surface of mushroom (coral fungi and others).[1] Mushrooms are the reproductive structures produced by members of the division of fungi known as the Basidiomycota. Ascomycete which generate spores in a different way.[2]

 

Mushroom can be either hypogeous or epigeous, large enough to be seen with the naked eye and usually picked by hand. Mushrooms are an important natural source of food and medicines mushrooms represent major and untapped source of potent new pharmaceutical products.[3]

 

Species of Mushroom

1. Amanita pantherina or a close look-alike that is indeed toxic, though the toxins are not related to it. In addition to some most unpleasant effects, agitation, muscle spasms and deep coma-like sleep. The water soluble toxins cause changes in perception of time and of size and so some people consume this mushroom intentionally to get high. Others boil it and throw away the water and then use it in cooking.[4]  

 

2. Amanita species yield a white spore print when the stipe is removed and the cap is placed gills down on a piece of white paper while Agaricus species yield a chocolate-brown spore print.[4]  

 

3. Verpa bohemica is distinctive species. It is characterized by a skirt like cap that hangs from top of a somewhat fragile yellowish-white stipe.[4]

 

4. Gyromitra esculenta is another distinctive and locally abundant. The toxin-gyromitrin is water-soluble compound that decomposes to a volatile hydrazine.[4]

 

5. Rhytisma punctatum an ascomycete growing on this maple leaf. Without the decomposers our forests would soon be piled deep with debris and the cycle of like to death and back to life would be broken.[4]

 

6. Cordyceps militaris can attack and grow on living organisms. Cordyceps militaris is tasty to insects but once ingested the spores grow and kill the organism, fruits provide new and sinister beautiful fruiting body.[4]

 

7. Cantharellus cibarius var. roseocanus a Western version of the widespread yellow chanterelle, is a basidiomycete. When viewed under a microscope basidiomycetes have spores on club-shaped structures called basidia. They are quickly distinguished by undersides with blunt forking ridges rather than the blade-like gills of many basidiomycetes.[4]  

 

8. Agaricus mushrooms also known as white or button mushrooms are the most commonly available and widely cultivated variety in the world. These rounds, smooth mushrooms are typically white or beige and vary in size from small (button) to jumbo size. Their flavor is relatively mild especially when eaten raw. When cooked their taste is enhanced.[5]

 

Classification [6]

The classification is mentioned in table-1.

 

 

 

Poisonous and Non-Poisonous Mushrooms

1.       Non Poisonous Mushrooms: This plant is an edible gill fungus which grows in open, grassy fields during late summer and early autumn. It is never found in the forest or on trees or fallen trunks seldom in the mountains. The cultivated form grows in specially constructed houses made of boards. In the growth of mushrooms tons of horse manure is used. This is covered with loamy soil 1½ inches thick. The mycelium or vegetative body of agaricus which develops in the soil from spores (basidispores) is white and thread like. On this myceluim develop little white buttons, first about the size of a pin head, becoming later pea size and then assuming a pear-shaped form. At this stage the sporophore consists of a cylindrical soild stipe or stalk and a pileus or cap. The border of the pileus is joined to the stipe by means of a "partial veil." Within this veil is found a circular cavity, into which the gills grow. At first the stipe grows faster than the rest of the fruiting body. The pileus expands transversely and the gills keep pace. After a while the veil ruptures, leaving a portion attached to the stipe. This constitutes the annulus or ring (true annualus). The hypeae in the pileus form the Tela contexta. [7]

 

2.       Poisonous Mushroom: Amanita muscaria is common. Its chief poisonous constituent is muscarine for which atropine is an antidote. Amanita phalloides is found in woods and borders of field and occurs singly and not in groups. The whole bottom is covered by an outer veil, known as the velum universale, which encloses the pileus, gills and stipe. The lower part remains as a cup, out of which the stipe grows. The upper part is carried dup as shreds adhering to the margin of the pileus. The lower part is called the volva or death cup. The annulus present is a false annulus. The surface is smooth with prominent warty scales. Amanila phalloides is the most poisonous of all species of toadstools. Its chief poisonous constituents are the glucoside amanita hemolysin and the toxin called amanita-toxin.[8] 

 

Table-1

 

Kingdom

Division

Subdivision

Class

Order

Fungi

Eumycota

Basidiomycotina

Hymenomycetes

Agaricales

Aphyllophorates

Tramellales

Gasteromycetes

Hymenogastrales

Lycoperdales

Nidulariales

Podaxales

Tulostomatales

Ascomycotina

Discomycetes

Helotiales

Pezizales

Tuberales

Pyrenomycetes

Cordyceps

Hypomyces

Podostroma

Xylaria and Daldinia


Morphology of Mushroom

Agaricus: Commonly called mushroom (when edible) or toadstool (when poisonous), is a fleshy saprophytic fungus. It grows on damp, rotten logs, tree trunks, decaying organic matter in damp soil rich in organic substances.

 

Structure: The mycelium consists of a mass of much branched hyphae, which unite at their points of contact and form a network in the substratum in which the fungus grows. The hyphae are very slender, hyaline and septate, mainly consisting of binucleate cells. Frequently, several hyphae are seen to be massed together here and there into thick twisted strands, called rhizomorphs, covered by a sheath. To start with, as the uninucleate basidospore germinates, it produces a primary mycelium. Soon, however, it becomes mutlinucleate by repeated unclear divisions. Septa appear between the nuclei, dividing the mycelium into a number of uninucleate cells. This stage is short. Soon, however, two such hyphae come into contact and fuse. The fusion is in the nature of plasmogamy. The new hypha, thus formed, is the secondary mycelium, and its cells are typically binucleate. The secondary mycelium spreads in all directions through the substratum, perennates from year to year,  produces the main, fleshy, aerial body which is the fructification or fruit body of the fungus, otherwise called basidocarp (basidia-forming body) or sporophore (spore-producing body).[9] 

 

Basidocarp: This consists of a fleshy stalk known as the stipe (stem) and an umbrella-like head or cap known as the pileus (cap or hat). The stalk and the head are composed of an interwoven mass of hyphae, and in section they have the appereance of a tissue-known as pseudoparenchyma. The stipe is stout and cylindrical, while the pileus expanded, roundish and convex. When young, the fructification is spherical (button stage) and is completely enveloped by a thin membranous covering called the veil or velum. With the rapid growth of the fruit body, specially the pileus, the velum gets ruptured, while the lower part of it remains attached to the stipe in the form of a ring (annulus). The pileus soon spreads in an umbrella like fashion on the top of the stipe. On the undersurface of the pileus a large number of thin, vertical, plate like structures, extending radially from the stipe to the margine of the pileus are seen. These are known as the gills of lamellae. [9]  

 

Gills: Gill bears innumerable spores (basidospores) on both surfaces. A gill in sections shows three distinct portions trama, sub-hymenium and hymentium. The trama is the central portion of the gill and consists of an interwoven mass of long, slender hyphae. The hyphal cells of the trama curve outward on either side of the gill and terminate in a layer of small rounded or oval cells. This layer is the sub-hymenium.[10] 

 

Reproduction of Mushroom

Asexual reproduction: is not a regular feature in the life cycle of Agaricus. Sometimes, it may take place through a kind of 'resting' spores called chlamydospores which are enlarged, think-walled vegetative cells of a hypha, formed singly or in chains. They germinate by producing a germ tube. Sometimes hyphae break up into small unicellular fragments called oidia (uni-nucleate or bi-nucleate). They grow into primary or secondary mycelia. A uninucleate oidium may also directly fuse with a primary mycelium. In some species, a basidiospore may give rise to a large number of conidia by budding. Each conidium then germinates into a mycelium.[11] 

 

Sexual Reproduction: Two primary hyphae of opposite strains (+ and -) leading to dikaryotic (bi-nucleate) secondary hypha. A short but distinct sexual phase is represented by the complete fusion (karyogamy) of two haploid nuclei of opposite strains (+ and -) in the young basidium. This produces a diploid zygote (+ or -), the nucleus of which divides by meiosis to form 4 haploid nuclei (2+ and 2-) in the basidium. Each nucleus (+ or -) pushes into a basidiospore through a sterigma.[11] 

 

Mushroom poisoning

Various fungi have pathogenic to man and animals by way of toxins (mycetism, mycotoxicosis) or by including allergic reactions (mycogenic allergies), or by progressive infections (mycoses).

 

(i) Mycetism

·         Some agarics (mushrooms) are poisonous to living being. The most severe type of mushroom poisoning is caused by species belonging to the genus Amanita. A mistake can result in very unpleasant gastrointestinal upset or even death.

·         Amanita phalloides (the death cup) is very poisonous and responsible for most of the mushroom poisoning deaths. A mixture of three toxins α-amanitine, amanitine, β-amanitine and phalloidine-is the cause of poisoning. Amanita muscaria (fly agaric) and A. pantherina (panther cap) are also poisonous.

·         Besides Amantia, some other poisonous mushrooms are Russula, Lactarius, Boletus, Entoloma etc. Symptoms of mushroom poisoning are - nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and visual disturbances. The affected one finally falls into a coma and may succumb.[12]

 

(ii) Mycotoxicosis

·         Toxins produced by fungi are called mycotoxins. One of the most important mycotoxin is aflatoxin produced by some species of Aspergillus (especially A. flavus). Aflatoxins can be lethal to poultry. They may cause liver damage and are suspected to induce cancer in humans.

·         Claviceps purpurea produces ergot alkaloids which, if mixed with rye flour, may result in severe poisoning. Fingers, toes, whole arms, legs, sometimes eyes and noses become gangreneous, wither and fall off with no bleeding.

·         Some fungi like Stachybotrys atra, Pithomyces chartarurn and some Fusarium spp. produce mycotoxins which affect large animals like horses, sheep and cattle. They develop facial eczema and liver damage while feeding on contaminated grass.

 

(iii) Mycoses

·         It is considered that around 1/5th of the global population (about 800 million) suffer or have suffered from mycoses. Mycoses can be considered of two types-superficial mycoses and deep-seated mycoses.

·         Superficial mycoses are unpleasant but not lethal. Skins, hair and nails are infected. The fungi that cause superficial mycoses are called dermatophytes and the diseases they cause are called dermatophytoses.

·         Various species of genera Microsporon, Epidermophyton and Trichophyton are important dermatophytes. Malassezia furfur is the agent of Pityriasis versicolor (dandruff). Microsporum andouini is the agent for most cases of ring worm of scalp in children.

·         Deep-seated mycosses are dangerous and may become fatal if not treated. Unfortunately, the diagnosis of mycoses is often difficult because there are no specific mycoses symptoms.

·         The isolation and identification of the pathogen is the only method to identity the disease.

·         Aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus fumigatus which attack ears, lungs etc, Pulmonary aspergillosis is diagnosed as T.B.

·         Blastomycosis Popularly known as 'Gilchrist's disease'. In early stages it causes cough, chest pains and weakness following the formation of subcutaneous nodules, abscesses or lesions on face and arm. Blastomyces dermitidis is the causal organism. [13]

·         Candidiasis caused by Candida albicans, the mucous membrane of skin, lungs etc. are attaked. Cutaneous candidiasis, oral candidiasis, pulmonary candidiasis, volvovaginal candidiasis and bronchocandidiasis are some of the infections.

·         Chromomycosis more or less localized and chronic infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissues by Cladosporium carrionii, Phialophora verrucosa, P. pedrosoi etc.

·         Coccidioidomycosis characterized by the lesions limited to the upper respiratory tract and lungs. In humans it is caused by Coccidioides immitis.

·         Cryptococcosis caused by Cryptococcus neoformans, The central nervous system is affected by this disease it affects the vision and causes respiratory failure.

·         Histoplasmosis is caused by Emmonsiella capsulata. It is very widespread and serious in humans and is sometimes even fatal.

·         Geotrichosis caused by Geotrichum candidum. It is an oral pulmonary, bronchial or intestinal infection in humans.

·         Warm blooded animals are also infected by fungi causing mycoses. Examples Cattle (Trichophyton verrucosum), birds (Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans).

 

(iv) Mycogenic allergies

Air-borne spores and conidia of fungi attack the skin or mucous membranes of individuals causing dermatitis and asthma.[14]

 

Amanita poisoning

·         Poisoning is characterized by a latent period of 6-12 hours after ingestion (range 6-48 h), during which the patient is asymptomatic. However, case reports have shown that some patients may present with GI symptoms earlier than 6 hours, making the differentiation between amatoxin poisoning and other benign mushroom exposure difficult. [15]

·         At the end of this latent period, a sudden and severe gastroenteritislike illness phase occurs. The patient experiences abdominal pain, vomiting, and profuse watery diarrhea, which may lead to severe dehydration, electrolyte abnormalities, and, rarely, circulatory collapse in young and elderly persons. This phase, which may last as long as 2-3 days, is followed by an apparent recovery phase characterized by an apparent clinical improvement; however, an asymptomatic rise in hepatic enzyme levels signifies the onset of hepatic necrosis. [15]

·         The third phase of amanita poisoning (ie, the hepatorenal syndrome) is characterized by jaundice, hypoglycemia, coma, and multiorgan and system failure followed by death in 50-90% of patients. With therapy, mortality may be well below 10%. The course of amatoxin poisoning typically lasts 6-8 days in adults and 4-6 days in children. [15]

 

Gyromitrin poisoning

·         The initial phases of poisoning resemble those of amatoxin poisoning and are characterized by a latent period of 6-10 hours after ingestion (range 3-48 h).

·         At the end of this latent period, the patient experiences a sudden onset of headache, abdominal cramping, vomiting, and diarrhea, which are generally self-limited. In patients who are young, elderly, or who are undergoing isoniazid therapy, this phase may be followed by monomethylhydrazine-related CNS symptoms such as vertigo, delirium, convulsions, and coma. If the toxin has been inhaled, the first phases are usually bypassed and the patient may exhibit CNS toxicity within 2 hours of the exposure. Hematologic, renal, and hepatic toxicities may also occur, followed by recovery. Hepatotoxicity is heralded by an elevation of transaminase levels, followed by signs and symptoms of hepatic insufficiency and rarely death.

·         Recovery typically begins 2 days after the onset of symptoms but may last as long as 5 days. In a small number of patients, the course may be fulminant, accounting for a 2-4% mortality rate. [16]

 

Orellanine poisoning

·         Poisoning begins with a seemingly minor GI illness characterized by mild nausea, vomiting, and, sometimes, diarrhea lasting 24-48 hours after ingestion. This phase is followed by a prolonged latent period lasting from 3 days to 3 weeks. An intense thirst and polyuria herald renal failure. The patient also may experience headaches, myalgias, muscle cramps, loss of consciousness, and convulsions. Dialysis may be required in as many as 50% of the patients, and death may occur in 15% of the cases. [17]

 

Psilocybin poisoning

·         The onset of hallucinations is usually rapid, and the effects generally subside within 2 hours. Poisoning by these mushrooms is rarely fatal in adults and may be distinguished from ibotenic acid poisoning by the absence of drowsiness or coma. The most severe cases of psilocybin poisoning occur in small children, in whom large doses may cause hallucinations accompanied by fever, convulsions, coma, and   death. [18]

Muscarine poisoning

·         Poisoning is characterized by increased salivation, perspiration, and lacrimation within 15-30 minutes of mushroom ingestion. With large doses, patients may experience abdominal pain, severe nausea, diarrhea, blurred vision, and labored breathing. Intoxication generally subsides within 2 hours. Death is rare but may result from cardiac or respiratory failure in severe cases. [18]

 

Ibotenic acid/muscimol poisoning

·         Symptoms generally occur within 1-2 hours of mushroom ingestion. In children, ibotenic-acid effects (glutaminergic) may predominate. These effects include hyperactivity, excitability, illusions, delirium, and convulsions. In adults, muscimol GABAergic effects may predominate and include drowsiness, dysphoria, and vertigo (sometimes accompanied by sleep). Periods of drowsiness may alternate between periods of hyperactivity and periods of delirium. Symptoms generally last for a few hours. Fatalities rarely occur in adults, but, in children, accidental consumption of large quantities of these mushrooms may cause convulsions, coma, and other neurologic problems for as long as 12 hours. [19]

 

Coprine poisoning

·         The digestion of coprine-containing mushrooms generates a metabolite that inhibits acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. Therefore, these mushrooms cause symptoms to occur only when alcoholic beverages are consumed within 2 hours of ingestion. Symptoms include headache, nausea, vomiting, flushing, chest pain, and diaphoresis typical of the disulfiram syndrome and may last for 2-3 hours.[19]

 

Miscellaneous GI poisoning

·         Many toxic mushrooms (poisonous mushrooms) produce symptoms that are similar to those caused by the deadly protoplasmic poisons. Some mushrooms may cause vomiting, diarrhea, or both that last for several days. Fatalities caused by these mushrooms are rare and are due to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances caused by diarrhea and vomiting; fatalities occur especially in debilitated, very young, or very old patients. Replacement of fluids and other appropriate supportive therapy prevents death in these cases.

·         Paxillus syndrome may occur following the ingestion of P. involutus. This syndrome begins with gastroenteritis like symptoms within 3 hours of ingestion, followed by an acute hemolytic anemia with hemoglobinuria and renal failure.

·         Bronchoalveolar allergic syndrome may follow the inhalation of spores of puffball mushroom species. This syndrome begins with a nasopharyngitis, which is followed by worsening respiratory symptoms, including dyspnea, cough, fever, and malaise, which may progress to respiratory failure.

·         Proxima toxicity is characterized by a latent phase that lasts 12-24 hours, followed by an initial gastroenteritis like illness, with nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. Oliguric renal failure occurs several days after the ingestion.

·         Smithiana toxicity, which begins 30 minutes to 12 hours after the ingestion, is characterized by nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, malaise, and dizziness and is followed by oliguric renal failure. This mushroom has also been associated with hepatotoxicity.[20]

 

Folk Traditions for Mushroom Poisoning

There are many folk traditions concerning the defining features of poisonous mushrooms. Unfortunately there are no general identifiers for poisonous mushrooms, and so such traditions are unreliable guides. Use of folk traditions to try to identify edible mushrooms is a frequent cause of mushroom poisoning. [21, 22]

·         "Poisonous mushrooms are brightly colored." – While the toxic/hallucinogenic fly agaric is usually bright red or yellow, the deadly destroying angel is an unremarkable white, and the deadly Galerinas are brown. Some choice edible species (chanterelles, Amanita caesarea, Laetiporus sulphureus, etc.) are brightly colored, while most poisonous species are brown or white.

·         "Insects/animals will avoid toxic mushrooms." – Fungi that are harmless to invertebrates can still be toxic to humans; the death cap, for instance, is often infested by insect larvae.

·         "Poisonous mushrooms blacken silver." – None of the known mushroom toxins have a reaction with silver.

·         "Poisonous mushrooms taste bad." – People who have eaten the deadly Amanitas reported that the mushrooms tasted quite good.

·         "All mushrooms are safe if cooked/parboiled/dried/ pickled/etc." – While it is true that some otherwise inedible species can be rendered safe by special preparation, many toxic species cannot be made toxin-free. Many fungal toxins are not particularly sensitive to heat and so are not broken down during cooking; particularly α-amanitin, the poison produced by the death cap (Amanita phalloides) and others of the genus, is not denatured by heat.

·         "Poisonous mushrooms will turn rice red when boiled". A number of Laotian refugees were hospitalized after eating mushrooms (probably toxic Russula species) deemed safe by this folklore rule and this misconception cost at least one person her life. [23]  

·         "Poisonous mushrooms have a pointed cap. Edible ones have a flat, rounded cap." – The shape of the mushroom cap does not correlate with presence or absence of mushroom toxins, so this is not a reliable method to distinguish between edible and poisonous species. Death cap, for instance, has a rounded cap when mature.

·         "Boletes are generally safe to eat" – It is true that unlike a number of Amanita species in particular, in most parts of the world, there are no known deadly varieties of the Boletus genus, which reduces the risks associated with misidentification. However, mushrooms like the Devil's Bolete are poisonous both raw and cooked and can lead to strong gastrointestinal symptoms, and other species like the Lurid Bolete require thorough cooking to break down toxins. As with other mushroom genera, proper caution is therefore advised in determining the correct species. [24,25]

Pharmacological Properties of Mushroom

Antitumour properties:-

·         The fruiting body of mushroom (Agaricus brasillinsis) having glycoprotein (50.2 %sugar and 43.3 % protein) and three ergosterol derivatives, showed antitumour activities. A beta –D-glucan polysaccharide isolated from this mushroom also exhibited antitumor activity.

·         A glycoprotein fraction obtained from A. campestris also exhibited antitumour activitiy against Sarcoma. Along with ergosterol, six steroids are also isolated from an acetone extract of A. brasiliensis.           

·         The acidic heteroglycans isolated from Auricularia auricular-judae exhibited antitumour activity on implanted sarcoma. Extracts of fruiting bodies of Boletus edulis have shown 100% inhibition against Sarcoma 180 and 90% inhibition against Ehrlich carcinoma. Calvacin was isolated from Calvatia gigantean with antitumour activity. The antitumour glycoprotein proflamin found in mycelia of F. Velutipes is effective against allogeneic and syngeneic tumors by oral administration. [26].

 

Cardiovascular and Hypercholesterolemia properties:-

·         Lentinus edodes can lower both blood pressure and free cholesterol in plasma as well as accelerate accumulation of lipids in liver by removing them from circulation.

·         Mevinolin is produced from the filamentous fungus Aspergillus tereus. This is the first inhibitor of microsomal enzyme that occurs early in the biosynthetic pathway to cholesterol formation.

·         Pleurotus mushroom could be recommended as a natural cholesterol lowering substance within human diet. [27].

·         Shitake mushroom is used to lower blood serum cholesterol via factor known as eritadenine, which is also called “lentinacine” or “lyntisine”. Eritadenine reduces BSC in mice, not by inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis, but by the acceleration of ingested cholesterol and its metabolic decomposition. It also lowers the blood levels of cholesterol and lipids in animals. [28]

 

Antimicrobial Properties:- [29].

Mushroom

Bioactive Compounds

Bioactivity

Cheimonophylum candissimum

Cheimonophyllon A-E

Antibacterial,

Weak antifungal

Clitocybe cyathiformis

Cyathiformine A

Antibacterial and antifungal

Clitocybe diatreta

Diatretol

Antibacterial

Coprinus atramentarius

Illudin C2, Illudin C3

Antimicrobial

Crepidotus fulvotomentosus

Strobilurin E

Antifungal

Favolaschia Pustulosa

9-methoxystrobilurin L

Antifungal and Antibacterial

Favolaschia Sp.

Eavoion

Antifungal

Flagelloscrypha pilatiii

Pilatin

Antibiotic

Ganoderma Lucidum

Ganoderan

Antiviral

Lentinus edodes

Lentinan

Antiviral

Mniopetalum Sp.

Mniopetals

Antimicrobial

Mycena sp.

Strolilurin M., Tetrachloropyrocatechol

Antifungal, Cytostatic, Antifungal, Antibacterial

Omphalotus Illudens

Illudinic acid

Antibacterial

Oudemansiella radicata

Oudemansin x

Antifungal

Poria cocos

Lanostane

Phospholipase A2 inhibitor (group of antiinflammatory agents)

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      

Biomedical application of mushroom:

Immunomodulating effects

1.       Anticancer

2.       Antiviral (e.g., anti-HIV)

3.       Antibacterial

4.       Therapy of auto-immune disorders.

 

Cardiovascular Disorders

1.       Coronary dilation and increasing coronary circulation.

2.       Anti-hyperlipidemic, and antiplatelet hypoglycaemic aggregating (blood clots)

 

Cancer therapy

1.       Maintain leucocyte count

2.       Enhance the immune system

3.       Reduction of chemotherapy toxicity and elimination of induced leucopenia (low blood leucocytes) by chemotherapy.

4.       Remission to prevent relapses

 

Remission of cancer and hepatitis B treatment

Enhancing oxygen utilization

1.       Relief of discomfort of high altitude stress, headaches, dizziness, nausea and insomnia.

2.       Relief of oxygen deprivation caused by coronary arteries blocked by atheromas, spasms or clots

 

Anti-ageing, anti-oxidant free radical scavengers.

Antidiabetic [27]

Clinical Trials and Other Uses of Mushroom

·         Clinical trials were conduct on 56 cancer patients, 30 were chosen to received the medicinal mushroom extract mix and another 26 comparable patients receiving the 26 comparatable patients receiving the accepted  pharmaceutical drug polyactin- A as a control group. All patients were in the middle-late stages of cancer. The experiment concludes that the tablets of mixed polysaccharides, made up of 6 species of medicinal mushrooms, can become a new health product to improve immunity with high effectiveness and non toxicity.

·         The polysaccharides extract from Agaricus brasiliensis, Grifola frondosa, Leinus edodes, Ganoderma lucidum, Trametes rersicolor are used to produce tables for inhibiting the growth of tumors and improving the immunity. The products of G. Iucidum are prescribed in various forms; it can be injected as a solution of powered spores or given as syrup. It can be taken as tea, soup, capsules, tincture form, the dose given as 10ml thrice daily. In case of syrup the dose is 4-6ml/day. The dried mushroom is prepared in water and given as a drink.

·         In Japan, Ganoderma Lucidum is used for the treatment of the cancer. The results obtained after application shows that the patient sleeps well with a healthier feeling and has an increased appetite. [28]

·         Injection of spore powder is effective in curing progressive deterioration, atrophy and muscles stiffness. The effect of elevation changes has been prevented and cured by tablets of mushroom spores.

·         In an experimental study for therapeutic application of G. lucidum, 143 patients with advanced previously treated cancer were given an oral G. lucidum polysaccharide extract of 1800 mg three times daily for 12 weeks of treatment were of the 100 fully assessable patients, 46 had progressive disease before or at the 6 weeks evaluation point. There was no significant change in the Function Assessment of Cancer Therapy-General (FACT-G)

·         G. lucidum and other mushrooms like Lentinus edodes, Grifola jrondosa have been used in many clinical studies with animals and humans. The high-molecular weight poly saccharides from the cell walls of G. lucidum are physiologically active. [29]

·         They are used against various disease like diabetes, Alzheimer's disease, retinal pigmentary degeneration, rhinitis, leucopenia, insomnia, dispel and duodenal ulcers. The water extract from fruit body had inhibitory on histamine release from rat peritoneal mast cells, induced by compound 48/80 or antigen - antibody and on passive cutaneous anaphylaxis reaction in guinea pig and rats. This activity is due to the Ganoderic acids CandD, which are also responsible for the treatment of asthma and allergy.

·         The poly saccharide and triterpenoids have also show the anti HIV activity. They also show protective effects on liver in human and animal studies. Ganopoly is well - tolerated and appears to be active against HBV patients with chronic hepatitis B. The extracts of fruit body, mycelium and the culture broth possess compounds exhibiting antitumour, antiviral, antigenotoxic/antimutagenic and immunostimulatory activities.

·         The Schizophyllan derived from Schizophyllum Commune, shown to activate macrophage in vitro and in vivo, which results in augmentation of T-cell activities and increases sensitivities of cytotoxic LAX and NK cells. The laboratory tests seem to indicate the role for the adrenal pituitary axis and central peripheral nervous system including serotonin, 5HT, and histamine catecholamine inlentinans antitumor activity. [30].

·         The immunoactive substance EP3 obtained from the fractionation of Lentinus edodes mycelium is a lignin complex (80%), 10% carbohydrates and 10% protein. Lentinula edodes (Berk) pegler, commonly known as shiitake mushroom has been used as medicinal food in Asian countries and is possess strong immunomodulatory property. In the present study, the methanolic extract of the fruit bodies of L. edodes was investigated for cytotprotective effect against Hydrogen peroxide-induced cytotoxicity in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by measuring the activities of xanthine oxidase (XO) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Hydrogen peroxidase at a concentration of 5u M caused 50% inhibition of PBMCs viability. The extract also inhibited xo activity PBMC, while showing moderate stimulatory effect GPx. However, in the presence of Hydrogen peroxidase alone, both the enzyme activities were increase significantly. The GPx activity increased, possibly in response to the increased availability of Hydrogen peroxidase in the cell. When the cells were pretreated with the extract and washed (to removed the extract) prior to the addition of Hydrogen peroxidase, the GPx and Xo activities as well as the cell viability were comparable to those when incubated with the extract alone. [31].

REFERENCES:

1.        Miller KO, Dutton EP. The diagnosis of mushroom orders and Families.  Mushroom. CRC Press, U.S.A. Paperback edition. 1997; pp. 47.

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Received on 26.09.2012

Modified on 10.11.2012

Accepted on 25.11.2012              

© A&V Publication all right reserved

Research J. Science and Tech.  4(6): November –December, 2012: 243-251